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EnergyIn physics, energy (Greek: ἐνέργεια energeia "activity, operation") is an indirectly observed quantity. It is often understood as the ability a physical system has to do work on other physical systems. Since work is defined as a force acting through a distance (a length of space), energy is always equivalent to the ability to exert pulls or pushes against the basic forces of nature, along a path of a certain length.

Games → A search game is a two-person zero-sum game which takes place in a set called the search space. The searcher can choose any continuous trajectory subject to a maximal velocity constraint. It is always assumed that neither the searcher nor the hider has any knowledge about the movement of the other player until their distance apart is less than or equal to the discovery radius and at this very moment capture occurs. As mathematical models, search games can be applied to areas such as hide-and-seek games that children play or representations of some tactical military situations. The area of search games was introduced in the last chapter of Rufus Isaacs' classic book "Differential Games" and has been developed further by Shmuel Gal and Steve Alpern.

Chemistry → The Nobel Prize in Chemistry (Swedish: Nobelpriset i kemi) is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to scientists in the various fields of chemistry. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895, awarded for outstanding contributions in chemistry, physics, literature, peace, and physiology or medicine. This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and awarded by Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on proposal of the Nobel Committee for Chemistry which consists of five members elected by Academy. The award is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobel's death. The first Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded in 1901 to Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, of the Netherlands, "for his discovery of the laws of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressure in solutions." The 2010 Nobel Prize was awarded to Richard F. Heck, Ei-ichi Negishi and Akira Suzuki for their work in palladium-catalyzed coupling reactions in organic synthesis.

SunThe Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is almost perfectly spherical and consists of hot plasma interwoven with magnetic fields. It has a diameter of about 1,392,000 km, about 109 times that of Earth, and its mass (about 2×1030 kilograms, 330,000 times that of Earth) accounts for about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System. Chemically, about three quarters of the Sun's mass consists of hydrogen, while the rest is mostly helium. The remainder (1.69%, which nonetheless equals 5,628 times the mass of Earth) consists of heavier elements, including oxygen, carbon, neon and iron, among others.

Hardware → Hardware is a general term for equipment that can be touched/held by hand such as keys, locks, hinges, latches, handles, wire, chains, belts, plumbing supplies, electrical supplies, tools, utensils, cutlery and machine parts. Household hardware is typically sold in hardware stores.

ESAThe European Space Agency (ESA) (French: l' Agence spatiale européenne) (ASE), established in 1975, is an intergovernmental organisation dedicated to the exploration of space, currently with 19 member states. Headquartered in Paris, ESA has a staff of more than 2,000 with an annual budget of about €4.02 billion / US$5.38 billion (2012).

LinuxLinux (i/ˈlɪnəks/ LIN-əks or /ˈlɪnʊks/ LIN-uuks) is a Unix-like computer operating system assembled under the model of free and open source software development and distribution. The defining component of Linux is the Linux kernel, an operating system kernel first released October 5, 1991 by Linus Torvalds.


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The Climatic Research Unit email controversy (also known as "Climategate") began in November 2009 with the hacking of a server at the Climatic Research Unit (CRU) at the University of East Anglia (UEA). Several weeks before the Copenhagen Summit on climate change, an unknown individual or group had breached CRU's server and thousands of emails and computer files were copied to various locations on the Internet.

The story first broke in the climate sceptic blogosphere, and columnist James Delingpole popularised the term "Climategate" to describe the controversy. Climate sceptics argued that the emails showed that global warming was a scientific conspiracy, in which scientists allegedly manipulated climate data and attempted to suppress critics. The accusations were rejected by the CRU, who argued that the emails had been taken out of context and merely reflected an honest exchange of ideas.

The mainstream media picked up the story as negotiations over climate change mitigation began in Copenhagen on 7 December, with Fox News and some other media outlets giving the controversy increased coverage. Because of the timing, scientists, policy makers, and public relations experts said that the release of emails was a smear campaign intended to undermine the climate conference. In response to the controversy, the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), the American Meteorological Society (AMS) and the Union of Concerned Scientists (UC ... Read the rest of this article

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NASA ... Since February 2006, NASA's mission statement has been to "pioneer the future in space exploration, scientific discovery and aeronautics research." On September 14, 2011, NASA announced that it had selected the design of a new Space Launch System that it said would take the agency's astronauts farther into space than ever before and provide the cornerstone for future human space exploration efforts by the U.S. NASA was established by the National Aeronautics and Space Act on July 29, 1958, replacing its predecessor, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The agency became operational on October 1, 1958...

Wearable Technology ... The calculator watch, introduced in the 1980s, was one original piece of widespread worn electronics. Ilya Fridman designed a Bluetooth headset into a pair of earrings with a hidden microphone...

Radio-frequency Identification ... RFID tags are used in many industries. An RFID attached to an automobile during production can be used to track its progress through the assembly line...

Email ... An email message consists of three components, the message envelope, the message header, and the message body. The message header contains control information, including, minimally, an originator's email address and one or more recipient addresses...

Mobile Phone ... In addition to telephony, modern mobile phones also support a wide variety of other services such as text messaging, MMS, email, Internet access, short-range wireless communications (infrared, Bluetooth), business applications, gaming and photography. Mobile phones that offer these and more general computing capabilities are referred to as smartphones...


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Productivity Improving Technologies (historical) ... Mining and metal refining technologies played a key role in technological progress. Much of our understanding of fundamental chemistry evolved from ore smelting and refining, with De Re Metallica being the leading chemistry text for 180 years...

List Of Nanotechnology Applications ... Buckyballs can "interrupt" the allergy/immune response by preventing mast cells (which cause allergic response) from releasing histamine into the blood and tissues, by binding to free radicals "dramatically better than any anti-oxidant currently available, such as vitamin E". Tissue engineering Nanotechnology can help reproduce or repair damaged tissue...

United States ... The United States of America (also called the United States, the U.S., the USA, America, and the States) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south...

Water ... Water covers 70.9% of the Earth's surface, and is vital for all known forms of life. On Earth, 96.5% of the planet's water is found in oceans, 1.7% in groundwater, 1.7% in glaciers and the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland, a small fraction in other large water bodies, and 0.001% in the air as vapor, clouds (formed of solid and liquid water particles suspended in air), and precipitation...

Agriculture ... The history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies... In the developed world, industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture has become the dominant system of modern farming, although there is growing support for sustainable agriculture (e.g...

Institute Of Technology ... The term polytechnic comes from the Greek πολύ (polú or polý) meaning "many" and τεχνικός (tekhnikós) meaning "arts". The term institute of technology, for its part, is often abbreviated IT; the term is not to be confused with information technology...

Rural History ... National studies Britain Burchardt (2007) evaluates the state of English rural history and focuses on an "orthodox" school dealing chiefly with the economic history of agriculture... Agriculture in the United States: A Documentary History (3 vol 1975) 2800 pages of primary sources Schmidt, Louis Bernard... Readings in the economic history of American agriculture (1925) online edition Sorokin, Pitirim et al., eds...

Economy ... A given economy is the end result of a process that involves its technological evolution, history and social organization, as well as its geography, natural resource endowment, and ecology, as main factors. These factors give context, content, and set the conditions and parameters in which an economy functions...

History Of Agriculture ... In the past century, agriculture has been characterized by enhanced productivity, the replacement of human labor by synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, selective breeding, and mechanization... The recent history of agriculture has been closely tied with a range of political issues including water pollution, biofuels, genetically modified organisms, tariffs, and farm subsidies... In recent years, there has been a backlash against the external environmental effects of mechanized agriculture, and increasing support for the organic movement and sustainable agriculture...


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Utility ... The doctrine of utilitarianism saw the maximization of utility as a moral criterion for the organization of society. According to utilitarians, such as Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), society should aim to maximize the total utility of individuals, aiming for "the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people"...

Malus Sieversii ... Its fruit is the largest of any species of Malus, up to 7 cm diameter, equal in size to many modern apple cultivars... A third species that has been thought to have made contributions to the genome of the domestic apples is Malus baccata, but there is no hard evidence for this in older apple cultivars...

List Of Apple Cultivars ... Table apples Commom name Origin First developed Comment Use Adams Pearmain England, United Kingdom 1826 A dessert apple... Eating Airlie Red Flesh (Hidden Rose, Aerlie's Red Flesh) Airlie, Oregon, United States 1970 (apx.) A large, conic apple...

Raw Foodism ... Depending on the type of lifestyle and results desired, raw food diets may include a selection of raw fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds (including sprouted whole grains such as gaba rice), eggs, fish (such as sashimi), meat (such as carpaccio), and non-pasteurized/non-homogenized dairy products (such as raw milk, raw milk cheese, and raw milk yogurt). Varieties of raw foodism Raw foodism can include any diet of primarily unheated food, or food cooked to a temperature less than 40 °C (104 °F) to 46 °C (115 °F)...

Atom ... The name atom comes from the Greek ἄτομος (atomos, "indivisible") from ἀ- (a-, "not") and τέμνω (temnō, "I cut"), which means uncuttable, or indivisible, something that cannot be divided further. The concept of an atom as an indivisible component of matter was first proposed by early Indian and Greek philosophers...

Speech Recognition ... Speech recognition applications include voice user interfaces such as voice dialing (e.g., "Call home"), call routing (e.g., "I would like to make a collect call"), domotic appliance control, search (e.g., find a podcast where particular words were spoken), simple data entry (e.g., entering a credit card number), preparation of structured documents (e.g., a radiology report), speech-to-text processing (e.g., word processors or emails), and aircraft (usually termed Direct Voice Input). The term voice recognition refers to finding the identity of "who" is speaking, rather than what they are saying...

List Of Apple Diseases ... alternata apple pathotype Alternaria rot Alternaria alternata American brown rot Monilinia fructicola Anthracnose canker and bull's-eye rot Pezicula malicorticus Cryptosporiopsis curvispora Apple scab Venturia inaequalis Spilocaea pomi Apple ring rot and canker Botryosphaeria berengeriana = Physalospora Armillaria root rot = shoestring root rot Armillaria mellea Bitter rot Glomerella cingulata Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Colletotrichum acutatum Black pox Helminthosporium papulosum Black root rot Xylaria mali Xylaria polymorpha Black rot, frogeye leafspot and canker Botryosphaeria obtusa Sphaeropsis malorum Blister canker = nailhead canker Biscogniauxia marginata = Nummularia discreta Blue mold Penicillium spp... Phytophthora cactorum Phytophthora cambivora Phytophthora cryptogea Phytophthora megasperma Phytophthora syringae Phytophthora fruit rot Phytophthora cactorum Phyt...

Apple ... Botanical information The apple forms a tree that is small and deciduous, reaching 3 to 12 metres (9.8 to 39 ft) tall, with a broad, often densely twiggy crown... Genome In 2010, an Italian-led consortium announced they had decoded the complete genome of the apple in collaboration with horticultural genomicists at Washington State University, using the Golden delicious variety... This new understanding of the apple genome will help scientists in identifying genes and gene variants that contribute to disease and drought resistance and other desirable characteristics...


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Google Search ... The order of search results on Google's search-results pages is based, in part, on a priority rank called a "PageRank". Google Search provides many options for customized search, using Boolean operators such as: implied "AND" (if several concatenated search terms separated by spaces are given, only pages containing all of them should be returned), exclusion ("-xx"), alternatives ("xx OR yy"), and wildcard ("x * x")...

Data Warehouse ... The typical data warehouse uses staging, integration, and access layers to house its key functions. The staging layer stores raw data, the integration layer integrates the data and moves it into hierarchal groups, and the access layer helps users retrieve data...

Architecture ... The practice of an architect, where architecture means to offer or render professional services in connection with the design and construction of a building, or group of buildings and the space within the site surrounding the buildings, that have as their principal purpose human occupancy or use... In relation to buildings, architecture has to do with the planning, designing and constructing form, space and ambience that reflect functional, technical, social, environmental, and aesthetic considerations... Architecture also encompasses the pragmatic aspects of realizing buildings and structures, including scheduling, cost estimating and construction administration...

The Arts ... For example, the history of art is described as "the history of the visual arts of painting, sculpture and architecture...

Control Unit ... This architecture is preferred in reduced instruction set computers (RISC) as it consists of a lesser instruction set...

History Of Graphic Design ... Known worldwide by its panda logo, the Switzerland-based World Wildlife Fund (WWF) participates in international efforts to protect endangered species and their habitats. Médecins Sans Frontières, or Doctors Without Borders, is best known for its humanitarian projects in war-torn regions and developing countries facing endemic disease...

Multiprocessing ... Multiprocessing sometimes refers to the execution of multiple concurrent software processes in a system as opposed to a single process at any one instant. However, the terms multitasking or multiprogramming are more appropriate to describe this concept, which is implemented mostly in software, whereas multiprocessing is more appropriate to describe the use of multiple hardware CPUs...